Difference between revisions of "Feed Cattle"

To meet the full nutritional needs of a herd of cattle involves some knowledge of ruminant nutrition and forage quality, as well as diet or ration formulation. Those inquiries mentioned above all need to be incorporated in order for a particular ration to be effective. This means assessing your cattle (what are their nutritional requirements?) and assessing the available feeds (what is the feed quality in terms of nutritional composition?) before compiling all that information together to come up with a ration worth its weight in animal productivity.  

To meet the full nutritional needs of a herd of cattle involves some knowledge of ruminant nutrition and forage quality, as well as diet or ration formulation. Those inquiries mentioned above all need to be incorporated in order for a particular ration to be effective. This means assessing your cattle (what are their nutritional requirements?) and assessing the available feeds (what is the feed quality in terms of nutritional composition?) before compiling all that information together to come up with a ration worth its weight in animal productivity.  

# Understand the physical characteristics that will determine nutritional requirements. Mentioned above were different animal types and the various characteristics and factors that set them apart. These, and other characteristics determine whether an animal (or a select group) will have high (or low) requirement for nutrients based on how much they are expected to consume per day and thus grow, gain, lose or maintain in muscle mass or body condition.

# Understand the physical characteristics that will determine nutritional requirements. Mentioned above were different animal types and the various characteristics and factors that set them apart. These, and other characteristics determine whether an animal (or a select group) will have high (or low) requirement for nutrients based on how much they are expected to consume per day and thus grow, gain, lose or maintain in muscle mass or body condition.

#* ''Body weight.'' Probably the most important question to know the answer to in asking just how to feed cattle (and how much) is '''how much do your animals weigh?''' It makes no difference if the weight is in pounds or kilograms.  

#* ''Body weight.'' Probably the most important question to know the answer to in asking just how to feed cattle (and how much) is '''how much do your animals weigh?''' It makes no difference if the weight is in pounds or kilograms.  

#** The only concern with gender is the actual diet formulating, especially when it comes to cows. Females, especially mature cows, are probably the most difficult to formulate for because they have different requirements that are associated with where they are in their reproductive cycle (i.e., how many months into pregnancy they are, or how far along in their lactation cycle they are).  

#** The only concern with gender is the actual diet formulating, especially when it comes to cows. Females, especially mature cows, are probably the most difficult to formulate for because they have different requirements that are associated with where they are in their reproductive cycle (i.e., how many months into pregnancy they are, or how far along in their lactation cycle they are).  

#*** Heifers can be difficult too because of their growth requirements and, if they are pregnant or producing milk for a calf, the reproductive strain it puts on their bodies. Cattle don't stop growing until they are around 3 or 4 years old (depending on breeding), and a heifer that is pregnant at 18 months old (bred at 15 months), or suckling a calf or producing milk as a young dairy cow at 26 months old (calved at 24 months), is going to need careful consideration surrounding what the best diet she can be fed without putting too much fat on her while at the same time giving her sufficient energy to produce milk and to grow.   

#*** Heifers can be difficult too because of their growth requirements and, if they are pregnant or producing milk for a calf, the reproductive strain it puts on their bodies. Cattle don't stop growing until they are around 3 or 4 years old (depending on breeding), and a heifer that is pregnant at 18 months old (bred at 15 months), or suckling a calf or producing milk as a young dairy cow at 26 months old (calved at 24 months), is going to need careful consideration surrounding what the best diet she can be fed without putting too much fat on her while at the same time giving her sufficient energy to produce milk and to grow.   

#** ''Gestation and Lactation''. Since the average length of gestation is 285 days or about 9.5 months, three stages of pregnancy are apparent: first, second, and third trimester.  Also, a cow is most likely also lactating during her pregnancy. Dairy cows lactate for a full 10 months, beef cows may be lactating (suckling a calf) for 6, 8 or even 10 months after calving. Females are usually bred back 2 to 3 months after they have calved. Because these dates and times coincide so closely together, nutrient requirements are mainly affected by whether the cow is in fact lactating, versus in pregnancy.  

#** ''Gestation and Lactation''. Since the average length of gestation is 285 days or about 9.5 months, three stages of pregnancy are apparent: first, second, and third trimester.  Also, a cow is most likely also lactating during her pregnancy. Dairy cows lactate for a full 10 months, beef cows may be lactating (suckling a calf) for 6, 8 or even 10 months after calving. Females are usually bred back 2 to 3 months after they have calved. Because these dates and times coincide so closely together, nutrient requirements are mainly affected by whether the cow is in fact lactating, versus in pregnancy.  

#*** Nutritional requirements with gestation/pregnancy alone do not begin to increase until a cow is in her last trimester (last three months of pregnancy). Her nutritional requirements continue to climb after she has given birth.  

#*** Nutritional requirements with gestation/pregnancy alone do not begin to increase until a cow is in her last trimester (last three months of pregnancy). Her nutritional requirements continue to climb after she has given birth.  

#*** Once a cow has given birth, she begins to suckle a calf (beef cows), or lactate to be put as part of the milking cow herd (dairy cows). Both types of cows will experience a climb of nutritional requirements until they reach 2 months after calving (some won't reach the peak until 3 months after calving). Nutritional requirements emphasize need for more energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus, and other vitamins and minerals. And since a lactating cow is producing milk for either her calf or for all those cow-milk-hungry humans out there, she also needs more water. This is also the point in time where a cow is re-bred via natural service (bull) or artificial insemination (AI).  

#*** Once a cow has given birth, she begins to suckle a calf (beef cows), or lactate to be put as part of the milking cow herd (dairy cows). Both types of cows will experience a climb of nutritional requirements until they reach 2 months after calving (some won't reach the peak until 3 months after calving). Nutritional requirements emphasize need for more energy, protein, calcium, phosphorus, and other vitamins and minerals. And since a lactating cow is producing milk for either her calf or for all those cow-milk-hungry humans out there, she also needs more water. This is also the point in time where a cow is re-bred via natural service (bull) or artificial insemination (AI).  

#*** After she has passed the 2- or 3-month lactation and re-breed mark, nutritive requirements decrease along with milk production. By the time the beef cow weans her calf at usually 6 or 8 months post-calving (she should be into her second trimester by then), her nutrient requirements dip significantly until she begins her third trimester again. Dairy cows' nutritional requirements decrease less dramatically because they are not "dried off" (milk production is slowed to nothing by stopping regular twice-per-day milking) until they have reached 10 months post-calving and are a third of the way into their last trimester.  

#*** After she has passed the 2- or 3-month lactation and re-breed mark, nutritive requirements decrease along with milk production. By the time the beef cow weans her calf at usually 6 or 8 months post-calving (she should be into her second trimester by then), her nutrient requirements dip significantly until she begins her third trimester again. Dairy cows' nutritional requirements decrease less dramatically because they are not "dried off" (milk production is slowed to nothing by stopping regular twice-per-day milking) until they have reached 10 months post-calving and are a third of the way into their last trimester.  

#* ''Hair depth''. Length of the first layer of hair (the finer, softer hair close to the skin) should be more pronounced in the fall and winter than spring and summer when it is shed out and a light hair coat is worn. This is to allow the animal more external insulation against the cold. Depth isn't needed numerically, just whether it's as "summer" or "winter."  

#* ''Hair depth''. Length of the first layer of hair (the finer, softer hair close to the skin) should be more pronounced in the fall and winter than spring and summer when it is shed out and a light hair coat is worn. This is to allow the animal more external insulation against the cold. Depth isn't needed numerically, just whether it's as "summer" or "winter."  

#* ''Hair condition''. This just asks if the hair coat is wet, muddy, or snow-covered. All can compromise insulating qualities of the hair coat, and thus the threshold temperature of the animal and that animal's maintenance requirements.

#* ''Hair condition''. This just asks if the hair coat is wet, muddy, or snow-covered. All can compromise insulating qualities of the hair coat, and thus the threshold temperature of the animal and that animal's maintenance requirements.

#** Note that with dairy cattle being classed as "thin hided" cattle is that most dairy cows are raised in a controlled environment (barn) and not outside, so they are mostly unable or lack opportunity to grow a winter coat like beef cattle are that are housed/raised outside. The referenced link above to skin thickness in cattle notes that Friesians (Holsteins) have 6.0 mm thick skin, whereas Jerseys have skin that is 5.46 mm thick (Dowling, 1955).  

#** Note that with dairy cattle being classed as "thin hided" cattle is that most dairy cows are raised in a controlled environment (barn) and not outside, so they are mostly unable or lack opportunity to grow a winter coat like beef cattle are that are housed/raised outside. The referenced link above to skin thickness in cattle notes that Friesians (Holsteins) have 6.0 mm thick skin, whereas Jerseys have skin that is 5.46 mm thick (Dowling, 1955).  

# Location, location, location. Your location plays a very big role in feed availability, as well as environmental stressors (directly related to climatic conditions) your cattle may experience. The types of winters and summers you get, length of grazing season (which translates into length of feeding period, no matter if it's winter grazing triticale, stock-pile grazing native forages, or feeding alfalfa hay bales in a sacrifice, drylot corral), average ambient temperature, and other environmental factors will depend on what you can feed your cattle and how much they're even expected to eat.  

# Location, location, location. Your location plays a very big role in feed availability, as well as environmental stressors (directly related to climatic conditions) your cattle may experience. The types of winters and summers you get, length of grazing season (which translates into length of feeding period, no matter if it's winter grazing triticale, stock-pile grazing native forages, or feeding alfalfa hay bales in a sacrifice, drylot corral), average ambient temperature, and other environmental factors will depend on what you can feed your cattle and how much they're even expected to eat.  

#* There are crops that are more available to some producers than others depending on their location. Lespedeza, for example, is a forage introduced from Central Asia that is adapted to grow from Missouri and parts of the more moist Great Plains east to much of New England and south to Florida and Texas. You won't find this forage growing further west in Montana or north in Alberta or British Columbia. This primarily because of moisture limitations and freezing winters. Alfalfa, on the other hand, is found all over North America. [[Harvest Corn|Corn]] can be grown as a feed in much of the United States and now even the southern and a few central reaches of Canada (especially Ontario, and into the Prairie Provinces) because of the ideal heat units available for it to get 8 to 12 feet tall. Where it can't be harvested as grain, it can be used for winter grazing cattle, or harvested as silage.  

#* There are crops that are more available to some producers than others depending on their location. Lespedeza, for example, is a forage introduced from Central Asia that is adapted to grow from Missouri and parts of the more moist Great Plains east to much of New England and south to Florida and Texas. You won't find this forage growing further west in Montana or north in Alberta or British Columbia. This primarily because of moisture limitations and freezing winters. Alfalfa, on the other hand, is found all over North America. [[Harvest Corn|Corn]] can be grown as a feed in much of the United States and now even the southern and a few central reaches of Canada (especially Ontario, and into the Prairie Provinces) because of the ideal heat units available for it to get 8 to 12 feet tall. Where it can't be harvested as grain, it can be used for winter grazing cattle, or harvested as silage.  

#* ''Current temperatures''. Nutritional requirements, and how much cattle eat, can be greater or less than average if the temperature is at -20ºC or 30ºC. If, for instance, a thin cow is trying to keep warm at -20ºC, she will eat more and need more energy. If a heavily-moderate-conditioned cow is even grazing in 30ºC weather, she will eat less and may even experience some heat stress (see below). Critical or threshold temperature for a cow is between 20ºC (upper) and -7ºC (lower). Generally speaking, a cow is expected to have a 1 percent increase in maintenance energy requirements for every degree lower than 20ºC. This if she is in moderate condition.

#* ''Current temperatures''. Nutritional requirements, and how much cattle eat, can be greater or less than average if the temperature is at -20ºC or 30ºC. If, for instance, a thin cow is trying to keep warm at -20ºC, she will eat more and need more energy. If a heavily-moderate-conditioned cow is even grazing in 30ºC weather, she will eat less and may even experience some heat stress (see below). Critical or threshold temperature for a cow is between 20ºC (upper) and -7ºC (lower). Generally speaking, a cow is expected to have a 1 percent increase in maintenance energy requirements for every degree lower than 20ºC. This if she is in moderate condition.

#** ''Previous month's temperature''. Sometimes this is good to know because it takes time for a cow to acclimatize to a new or different temperature experienced now than the month before. Higher temperatures mean cattle will eat less, and lower temperatures indicate cattle are going to be eating more, generally.

#** ''Previous month's temperature''. Sometimes this is good to know because it takes time for a cow to acclimatize to a new or different temperature experienced now than the month before. Higher temperatures mean cattle will eat less, and lower temperatures indicate cattle are going to be eating more, generally.

#* ''Mud in lot''. A muddy lot can decrease dry matter intake levels by 15 to 30% especially when there's quite a bit of mud in the lot. The extent and duration of the mud can make determining dry matter intake difficult.  

#* ''Mud in lot''. A muddy lot can decrease dry matter intake levels by 15 to 30% especially when there's quite a bit of mud in the lot. The extent and duration of the mud can make determining dry matter intake difficult.  

#* ''Heat stress''. Heat stressed animals have an increase in maintenance energy requirements because they are trying to dissipate excess heat built up from ambient temperatures greater than 30ºC. According to the NRC, a 7% and 18% increase in maintenance requirements is expressed when the animal is showing rapid, shallow breathing, and when the animal is open-mouthed panting, respectfully.  

#* ''Heat stress''. Heat stressed animals have an increase in maintenance energy requirements because they are trying to dissipate excess heat built up from ambient temperatures greater than 30ºC. According to the NRC, a 7% and 18% increase in maintenance requirements is expressed when the animal is showing rapid, shallow breathing, and when the animal is open-mouthed panting, respectfully.  

=== Assessing Feeds Available ===

=== Assessing Feeds Available ===

#* Typically, then, the higher the quality of the feed, the more the animal will eat. In other words, if the feed is lower in fibre and higher in energy and protein, a bovine will consume more of it.

#* Typically, then, the higher the quality of the feed, the more the animal will eat. In other words, if the feed is lower in fibre and higher in energy and protein, a bovine will consume more of it.

#* Lactating and growing cattle will eat more per their requirements than a mature bull, or a dry mature cow.  

#* Lactating and growing cattle will eat more per their requirements than a mature bull, or a dry mature cow.  

#* In order to calculate the estimate of a bovine's average daily dry matter intake, use the following formula:

#* In order to calculate the estimate of a bovine's average daily dry matter intake, use the following formula:

#** '''Body weight (in pounds [lb] or kilograms [kg]) x 0.025 = Daily Dry Matter Intake.'''

#** '''Body weight (in pounds [lb] or kilograms [kg]) x 0.025 = Daily Dry Matter Intake.'''

#  Determine the desired average daily gain for your cattle. Growing cattle are those were you will want to have a desired ADG to target for, ranging from 1.5 to 3 pounds a day. Stockers should have less of an ADG than finishers because they are growing more than putting on fat. ADG is determined by energy content of the diet.  

#  Determine the desired average daily gain for your cattle. Growing cattle are those were you will want to have a desired ADG to target for, ranging from 1.5 to 3 pounds a day. Stockers should have less of an ADG than finishers because they are growing more than putting on fat. ADG is determined by energy content of the diet.  

# Determine the energy content of the diet per your animals' needs. Energy content is expressed in terms of '''TDN (total digestible nutrients)''' or '''DE (digestible energy)'''. As mentioned in the previous step, ADG for growing and finishing cattle is determined by energy content of the diet. ADG is less important for mature cows and bulls, though when needing to understand how much energy in the diet is needed for dry, pregnant cows in the middle of winter versus lactating females in summer is certainly important. Energy needs can be exceeded (to a certain extent, and as long as fibre needs are also met) for all classes of cattle in order for them to meet their maintenance and productivity requirements. Maintenance energy needs should be exceeded if a cow is too thin, but energy has to be cut back if that cow is over her desired body condition score.

# Determine the energy content of the diet per your animals' needs. Energy content is expressed in terms of '''TDN (total digestible nutrients)''' or '''DE (digestible energy)'''. As mentioned in the previous step, ADG for growing and finishing cattle is determined by energy content of the diet. ADG is less important for mature cows and bulls, though when needing to understand how much energy in the diet is needed for dry, pregnant cows in the middle of winter versus lactating females in summer is certainly important. Energy needs can be exceeded (to a certain extent, and as long as fibre needs are also met) for all classes of cattle in order for them to meet their maintenance and productivity requirements. Maintenance energy needs should be exceeded if a cow is too thin, but energy has to be cut back if that cow is over her desired body condition score.

#* Replacement heifers and stocker cattle should be fed a ration where energy is around 65 to 70% TDN so that they can achieve a rate of gain at around 1 to 2 lbs per day or higher, depending on the animals' breeding[s]. At minimum, for growing cattle, TDN value should be no lower than 55% for maintenance and some growth. Any lower would mean loss in body condition, and possibly stunted growth. But on the flip side, diets that exceed 80% TDN can lead to problems like acidosis if there is not enough fibre to counter the effects of acidosis.

#* Replacement heifers and stocker cattle should be fed a ration where energy is around 65 to 70% TDN so that they can achieve a rate of gain at around 1 to 2 lbs per day or higher, depending on the animals' breeding[s]. At minimum, for growing cattle, TDN value should be no lower than 55% for maintenance and some growth. Any lower would mean loss in body condition, and possibly stunted growth. But on the flip side, diets that exceed 80% TDN can lead to problems like acidosis if there is not enough fibre to counter the effects of acidosis.

#* TDN and DE are evaluated on a DM (dry matter) basis.  

#* TDN and DE are evaluated on a DM (dry matter) basis.  

# Look at fibre content of the feed.  Cattle are ruminants and cannot subsist without sufficient fibre in the diet; if fibre was minimal (less than 15 to 20% of the total dry matter ration), damage to the rumen wall would result, as well as other problems like acidosis. Optimum fibre for cattle all cattle should be at 40 to 50%. Lower quality feeds see fibre levels climbing up to 65% of DM ration or higher, potentially causing impaction and reduction in nutrient uptake. There are no rules of thumb for fibre content of different rations for different classes of cattle.  

# Look at fibre content of the feed.  Cattle are ruminants and cannot subsist without sufficient fibre in the diet; if fibre was minimal (less than 15 to 20% of the total dry matter ration), damage to the rumen wall would result, as well as other problems like acidosis. Optimum fibre for cattle all cattle should be at 40 to 50%. Lower quality feeds see fibre levels climbing up to 65% of DM ration or higher, potentially causing impaction and reduction in nutrient uptake. There are no rules of thumb for fibre content of different rations for different classes of cattle.  

#* Effective NDF (eNDF) is the amount of NDF that stimulates chewing and rumen motility. Long-stemmed forages stimulate more chewing and ruminating which stimulates more salivation. As salivation increases, so does buffering capacity of the rumen. Buffering pH in the rumen is important for dairy diets and finishing rations because it helps reduce rumen pH levels from dipping below what's acceptable (i.e., pH 6 or higher). The higher the end of a feed, the greater the buffering capacity of the rumen.  

#* Effective NDF (eNDF) is the amount of NDF that stimulates chewing and rumen motility. Long-stemmed forages stimulate more chewing and ruminating which stimulates more salivation. As salivation increases, so does buffering capacity of the rumen. Buffering pH in the rumen is important for dairy diets and finishing rations because it helps reduce rumen pH levels from dipping below what's acceptable (i.e., pH 6 or higher). The higher the end of a feed, the greater the buffering capacity of the rumen.  

#  Evaluate and determine protein requirements of your cattle in correlation to protein content of the feeds. Typically, younger and lighter-weight cattle have higher protein requirements than older, heavier cattle. Lactating cows also require more protein than dry cows. Also, dairy cows need more protein than beef cows regardless if both are lactating or dry. Protein content in feeds and for livestock are denoted as '''crude protein (CP)'''.  

#  Evaluate and determine protein requirements of your cattle in correlation to protein content of the feeds. Typically, younger and lighter-weight cattle have higher protein requirements than older, heavier cattle. Lactating cows also require more protein than dry cows. Also, dairy cows need more protein than beef cows regardless if both are lactating or dry. Protein content in feeds and for livestock are denoted as '''crude protein (CP)'''.